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作者简介:

向芸萩(1997—),女,重庆万州人,助教,硕士,研究方向为运动训练。

通讯作者:

梁斌(1977—),男,山西运城人,教授,博士,研究方向为体育教育。

中图分类号:G804.2

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1008-3596(2023)04-0088-09

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目录contents

    摘要

    运用文献资料法和逻辑分析法,从概念界定、负荷量化、能量消耗、底物氧化和营养补给等方面对超级耐力运动的生理生化特征展开研究。超级耐力运动为持续时间超过6 h的单日、多日、单站、多站赛运动,学界对其与一般耐力运动负荷特点对比分析后提出超耐阈概念,并采用ECOs方法对超级耐力运动负荷进行量化。超级耐力运动会产生巨大的能量消耗,能量不足成为该运动的限制性核心问题。在训练过程中,可通过低碳水高脂肪或生酮饮食结构实现“生酮适应”,或在比赛前期采用“脂肪负荷”方法以提高脂肪氧化率,使参与者在强度不变的前提下,让脂肪提供大量能量。建议根据超级耐力运动不同项目的特点,制定不同的运动强度监控和营养补充方案以提高运动成绩。

    Abstract

    By using the methods of literature and logical analysis, this paper studies the physiological and biochemical characteristics of ultra-endurance exercise from the aspects of concept definition, load quantification, energy consumption, substrate oxidation and nutritional supply. Ultra-endurance exercise is a single-day, multi-day, single-station and multi-stage events lasting more than 6 hours. After comparing and analyzing its characteristics with general endurance exercise load, the concept of ultra-endurance threshold is proposed, and the ECOs method is used to quantify the super endurance exercise load. ultra-endurance exercise will produce huge energy consumption, and energy shortage has become the restrictive core problem of this exercise. In the training process,“ketogenic adaptation” can be achieved by low-carbon-high-fat or ketogenic diet structure,or “fat loading” method can be used in the pre-competition period to increase the fat oxidation rate,so that participants can provide a large amount of energy from fat under the premise of constant intensity. It is suggested that different exercise intensity monitoring and nutritional supplement programs should be formulated according to the characteristics of different items of ultra-endurance exercise sports to improve sports performance.

  • 耐力运动是全球性运动,可分为一般耐力运动和超级耐力运动。过去40年,随着超级耐力运动的推广,其赛事数量、参与人数及完赛人数在国际和国内呈“井喷式”增长。参赛选手不再局限于专业运动员,更多业余爱好者也加入其中[1]。持续的负荷输出、能量代谢以及极端环境对生理、心理造成的巨大压力决定了此项目的参与难度[2]。对超级耐力运动的负荷特征、能量代谢及营养补充等方面的理论与实践研究有助于全面了解项目特征,提高训练的科学化水平。

  • 1 超级耐力运动界定

  • 超级耐力运动(Ultra-endurance,以下简称超耐运动)的雏形是1925年创立的90 km南非卡门马拉松(Comarades Marathon)[3],随后众多新型长距离或长时间项目不断出现。1980年Applegate等[4]将IRONMAN铁人三项赛(226 km)归为超耐铁人三项,并提出比赛日的饮食建议。Kreider[5]首次将超耐运动定义为持续时间超过4 h的耐力运动,获得了Laursen等[6]的赞同,并运用于研究中。但Zaryski等[3]发现如果以4 h为超耐运动界限,不足以突出其运动特征,最终将超耐运动定义为持续时间超过6 h的运动。Zaryski的观点得到了多位学者的认可,Knechtle等[7]、Scheer等[8]、Ardigò等[9]、Rothschild等[10]基于此观点,认为超耐运动可以是以公里或英里为单位的限时赛,或以小时或天数为单位的长距离比赛(以运动员完赛总距离为比赛成绩认定标准),还有多赛段的比赛,例如超级铁人三项赛、超级游泳赛、超级自行车赛、超级马拉松赛、超级赛艇赛及跨国家或者跨州的比赛等[11]。因此,综合已有研究分析认为,超耐运动主要包括超长时间或超长距离的运动,其持续时间普遍在6 h以上的单项或多项、单日或多日、单赛段或多赛段运动。

  • 表1 常见超级耐力运动比赛

  • 2 超级耐力运动负荷特征及量化

  • 2.1 超级耐力运动负荷特征

  • 超耐项目具有持续6 h以上、能量不足、疲劳产生及底物代谢转变等特征,其与一般耐力项目中的奥林匹克标准距离铁人三项赛或马拉松等比赛的最大摄氧量(VO2max)、心率(HR)、血乳酸(LT)等生理生化指标显著不同。例如,在奥林匹克标准距离铁人三项赛中平均最大摄氧量为3 600 ml/kg[12],而超级铁人三项赛中平均最大摄氧量为3 000 ml/kg[13]。在马拉松赛中全程平均心率可达最大心率的88.8%[14],而在168 km的环勃朗峰越野跑中平均心率为最大心率的74%[15]。在奥林匹克标准距离铁人三项赛中平均心率为最大心率的90%[16],而超级铁人三项赛中平均心率为最大心率的71%[13]。Cejuela等[17]发现在奥林匹克标准距离铁人三项赛与超级铁人三项赛中游泳能量消耗(kcal/min/kg)分别为0.3~0.4和0.23~0.18,自行车为0.15~0.29和0.15,跑步为0.36和0.19。从上述研究中得出,在超耐运动中,每分钟最大耗氧量、心率及能量消耗方面均比一般耐力运动略低。Laursen等[6]研究认为,在超耐运动初期,因心血管循环转变(cardiovascular drift)等因素,心率在一定时间范围内可维持在无氧阈(AT)以上,但约在3 h以后,碳水化合物氧化比例降低,脂肪氧化供能占比增加并逐渐成为主要供能系统,由于脂肪氧化供能效率比碳水化合物低,运动强度难以维持原有强度,心率逐渐下降到无氧阈以下,并随后在比赛中保持相对稳定。O’Toole等[18]发现在1958年的夏威夷铁人三项赛(226 km)中,若运动员的运动强度维持在无氧阈值,无法持续运动超过6 h,而当强度控制在最大摄氧量的50%时,可至少维持8 h运动。随后Muñoz等[19]、Barrero等[13]均发现在超耐运动中强度均低于无氧阈。因此,为了在超耐比赛中获得更好的运动表现和成绩,需要在6 h及以上时间中保持最佳的运动强度,Laursen等[6]基于心率,针对超耐运动提出了一个新概念,即“超耐阈(Ultra-endurance threshold)”,其值大致低于无氧阈。随后Laursen等[20]研究发现,强度低于第一通气阈以下会取得更好的运动成绩,验证了超耐阈低于无氧阈。近年,国外一系列研究也验证了超级耐力运动强度低于超耐阈(表2)[21-24]。同时,超耐运动因项目特点的不同,可能存在不同超耐阈,在单项赛中,超耐自行车赛和超耐游泳赛可以通过外界(自行车、水)提供一定支撑力,而超耐跑克服自重的做功更大,所以跑步的超耐阈值会明显低于自行车和游泳的超耐阈值。在复合型超耐铁人三项赛中,前项对后项的负荷有较大的影响,与超耐自行车相比,经游泳后的自行车运动将会导致更高的生理成本,跑步阶段同理。因此,在超耐运动中对于超耐阈值的准确把握是比赛或安排训练计划的关键。

  • 2.2 超级耐力运动负荷量化

  • 把握好超耐运动的负荷强度、负荷量、负荷密度、负荷形式等,可有效提高运动成绩并预防伤病[28-29]。在一般耐力运动中训练强度常以乳酸阈、通气阈或最大乳酸稳态为依据划分为3个区间,分别对应有氧强度(或低强度)、有氧-无氧混合强度(或中等强度)和无氧强度(或高强度)区间[30]。Bannister等[31]最初基于心率的“剂量-反应”模型,提出训练冲量(training impulse,TRIMP)概念来量化体力活动,后经过Lucia等[32]、Foster等[33]不断完善,已广泛应用于耐力运动中。现今超级铁人三项(226 km)、超级自行车或超级马拉松等业余爱好者们常采用商业化的运动员监控系统,例如通过自行车测功仪SRM或跑步测功仪STRYD测试平均功率、标准功率、速度、配速等指标,确定其强度系数(IF),然后利用Vance等[34]发明的TrainingPeaks转为训练压力指数(TSS),最终将训练负荷量化。

  • 表2 超级耐力运动比赛强度指标

  • 而在超耐运动最具代表性的超级铁人三项赛中,Cejuela等[17]根据3个子项目每分钟消耗能量、运动后肌肉反应、训练密度等因素,拟定跑步系数为1,则游泳为0.75、骑车为0.5,并根据铁人三项赛中3个运动的连续性特征,将游泳到骑车和骑车到跑步之间分别相加0.1和0.15的加权系数,并且将心率进一步细分,划分为8个区间,总结了“客观负荷量表”(objective load equivalents,西班牙语缩写为ECOs)。ECOs是TRIMP计算方法的进一步细化,使参与者在训练中的负荷量化更精确,通过将一次训练的总持续时间(以分钟为单位)乘以1~50之间的权重值,再分别乘以跑步、游泳或骑车对应的系数,最后相加,具体等式为ECOs=持续时间(分钟)×训练强度区间系数×训练模式系数。此方法在后续诸多研究中获得应用,在超耐运动的训练负荷监控方面显示了很好的应用前景。

  • 表3 客观负荷量表(ECOs)[17]

  • 注:<AeT:小于有氧阈;AeT:有氧阈;AeT~AnT:有氧~无氧阈;AnT:无氧阈值;>AnT:无氧阈~MAP;MAP:最大无氧功率;LAC Cap:最大乳酸;LAC Pow:乳酸功率或糖酵解功率。

  • 3 超级耐力运动能量代谢特征

  • 3.1 超级耐力运动能量代谢

  • 运动过程中机体的有氧和无氧代谢的具体分配主要取决于运动的强度和持续时间。耐力运动以有氧代谢为主,无氧代谢所占比重很少。随着运动时间的延长,在一般耐力运动中,磷酸原供能比例下降、糖酵解供能比例提升,但在超耐运动中,磷酸原供能比例持续下降,糖酵解供能比例也下降,而有氧氧化比例持续提升,并且碳水化合物氧化占比低于一般耐力运动,但脂肪氧化占比略高。例如在最常见的一般耐力马拉松项目中,代永胜等[35]发现,若持续时间为90~360 min,有氧代谢占比95%,混氧代谢占比5%。在超耐项目中,专业运动员或水平较高的业余爱好者的无氧代谢不超过1.2%,在比赛的开始、冲刺、追逐阶段发挥着重要作用[36]。同时,考虑到人体运动动作结构的差异,不同的运动形式和专项技术将有不同的能量代谢占比[37],例如超耐游泳和超耐皮划艇都是水上项目,在无稳定支撑的环境中技术难度高于跑步,因此,糖酵解供能占比高于超耐跑。在复合型的超级铁人三项中,前项能量代谢也会对后项能量代谢有一定影响。

  • 3.2 超级耐力运动负能量平衡

  • 伴随着时间和距离的增加,超耐运动的能量消耗急剧增加,若训练或比赛时补充的能量不足,会出现负能量平衡,会导致低血糖、虚弱、昏厥、糖原耗尽、瘦体重损失、损伤率增加及尿量、脂肪和骨骼肌质量减少等问题,主要表现为体重和体脂百分比下降,如果能量极度不足,会直接影响自身的恢复,导致次日的训练或比赛无法继续[38-39]。尽管参与者在超耐运动过程中都有一定的能量摄入,但远不及能量消耗,进而产生巨大的能量赤字(energy deficit),通常多日超耐赛的总能量赤字大于单日超耐运动的总能量赤字。54 km的山地超级马拉松中可引发约3 700 kcal的负能量平衡[39],24 h超级游泳赛中出现10 170 kcal的能量不足[27],24 h超级自行车赛中会出现9 915 kcal的能量不足[23],且在9天的连续骑行过程中,能量缺乏可达到80 000 kcal以上[40]。Nikolaidis等[40]的统计显示,几乎所有的超耐运动运动员在参赛过程中都会出现较为明显的能量不足。在超级铁人三项赛中,Kimber等[41]发现运动员们摄入的总能量只占能量需求的36%~54%。Black等[42]发现在超耐自行车比赛过程中,摄入的外源性碳水化合物只能满足能量需求的23%~43%。Barrero等[43]通过对铁人三项赛的分析发现,能量不足占67%。Ramos-Campo等[39]发现在50 km超耐跑中摄入的能量占能量消耗的30%。可见,比赛过程中的能量摄入并不能支持运动员完成比赛。Bescós等[22]研究发现,24 h超级自行车赛中64%的能量来源于运动员身体储存的内源性燃料,Black等[42]发现在384 km超耐自行车比赛中能量摄入时间和完成比赛时间存在显著的负相关,但运动员为了争取比赛时间,通常会减少营养补给的次数,导致能量摄入不够、不及时。因此,为解决参与者在比赛过程中能量摄入不足问题,提高身体内源性底物的储存量,或是提高底物的氧化率,将成为超耐运动中亟待解决的问题。

  • 4 超级耐力运动底物氧化特征与营养补给

  • 4.1 超级耐力运动底物氧化特征

  • 底物氧化主要由强度决定,当参与者身体储存的内源性碳水化合物消耗殆尽时,脂肪就成为了唯一的能量来源,但脂肪转化效率较低,会抑制运动能力,若想继续维持运动状态,人们必须放慢速度去适应身体机能的变化,即降低强度。在耐力运动中,一般耐力和超级耐力之间的底物代谢占比有较大差异。在持续时间90~360 min的一般耐力项目中,肌糖原的分解可达80%[35],魏文哲等[14]发现马拉松比赛中肯尼亚男子优秀运动员碳水化合物供能占比87.8%,脂肪供能占比12.2%;Millet[44]发现在奥运会标准距离的铁人三项赛中,精英运动员经过40 km的自行车赛后碳水化合物耗竭,随后跑步阶段的脂肪氧化供能比例明显增加。而Kimber等[41]分析了超级铁人三项赛中的运动员能量代谢特征,发现60%来源于脂肪而40%来源于碳水化合物。Bescós等[22]对24 h超耐自行车比赛中的个例分析发现,由脂肪氧化提供的能量约为2/3,而碳水化合物氧化提供1/3的能量。因此,在超耐运动中脂肪氧化供能相对碳水化合物更多,并且脂肪氧化占比较一般耐力运动高。

  • 4.2 脂肪氧化特征

  • Phinney等[45]发现,在5名训练有素的“生酮适应”自行车运动员训练过程中,若把强度设定为最大耗氧量的64%时,90%以上的燃料来自脂肪氧化。张勇[46]对普通女大学生的研究发现,在长时间、中低强度运动中,脂肪是主要燃料基质,提出脂肪最大氧化的运动强度在最大摄氧量的55%~75%之间。李盈盈等[47]提出最大脂肪氧化强度的出现点在无氧阈水平前。以上研究者提出的最大脂肪氧化率的强度范围均与超耐阈值吻合,即若强度维持在超耐阈值范围内,就能更有效地利用脂肪提供能量,维持最佳的运动表现。Webster等[48]利用2017年夏威夷科纳超级铁人三项世锦赛的公开数据构建了超级铁人三项底物代谢成本模型(表4),该模型对不同项目消耗情况进行总结,显示脂肪氧化率会因个体差异而不同。

  • 表4 科纳超级铁人三项世锦赛运动员代谢成本模型[48]

  • 表4显示,对于超级铁人三项专业运动员来说,脂肪氧化率为0.6~1.2 g/min,而业余爱好者的脂肪氧化率为0.3~0.9 g/min,长期的科学系统的有氧耐力训练可增强脂肪氧化利用的能力,Phinney等[45]也证实了这点,自行车运动员的脂肪氧化率可达到1.5 g/min,张勇[46]对有训练者和无训练者的研究发现,诱导脂肪氧化率达最大脂肪氧化率的95%以上的强度分别为最大摄氧量的57.14%~69.86%和48.21%~65.41%。同时,业余爱好者碳水化合物的氧化率(1.12~2.56 g/min)比专业运动员(2.05~3.49 g/min)低,是因为业余爱好者在比赛过程中常采用比专业运动员更低的运动强度,一般维持在低强度的范围内,更多由脂肪氧化供能。考虑到科纳铁人三项世锦赛的特殊性——只有铁人三项赛每站的冠军才有资格参与其中,其研究对象的整体水平都在业余高水平之上,对完赛即成功的业余爱好者来说,碳水化合物氧化的占比可能远远小于脂肪氧化。在超耐运动中合理分配体力的基础上,让机体通过大量的脂肪氧化来获得能量,以减少对碳水化合物氧化供能的依赖值得重视。Frandsen等[49]发现脂肪最大氧化率与超耐项目运动表现相关,成绩较好的运动员表现出高氧化率。因此,通过训练或营养补给来提高脂肪氧化率,将最大限度提高超耐成绩。

  • 4.3 超耐运动营养补给

  • 不论是专业运动员还是业余爱好者,超耐运动的营养补给都至关重要。面对超耐运动比赛恶劣的环境(沙漠、极地、山地等)及条件(高温、高热、低温、高海拔等),主办方食物准备不充足、补给站距离太远等外部因素,以及受因个体差异出现食欲抑制、味觉疲劳或是胃肠功能紊乱(高达30%)的内部症状影响[50],参与者仅靠外源性碳水化合物或脂肪来弥补能量缺口是远远不够的。但人体储存内源性碳水化合物的能力有限,肌糖原约有1 500~2 000 kcal,肝糖原约有400 kcal,不足以给超耐运动提供能量[51],并且肌糖原很容易被耗竭,会带来一系列肌肉疲劳的不良反应,而脂肪的储存量较多。据Jeukendrup等[52]研究,一个70 kg、体脂10%的运动员其脂肪内源性能量达到68 250 kcal。Newsholme[53]认为,脂肪提供的能量能满足5天超耐跑的能量需求。因此,为了使脂肪尽可能多地快速提供能量,通过训练或饮食结构来改变脂肪的氧化率具有实际意义。研究证明,一个“生酮适应”的运动员仅通过脂肪氧化,1小时能提供700~800 kcal的能量[54-55],能完全满足运动员运动过程中的能量需求。有学者建议在3周以上,每天摄入的碳水化合物控制在50 g以内的低碳高脂肪的饮食结构[45-46],或每天摄入20 g以内(低于每日总摄入量的5%)的生酮饮食结构。Burke[56]研究了专业运动员的“生酮适应”过程(图1),当采用低碳高脂饮食结构5~10天后,脂肪的氧化率明显增加。考虑到“生酮适应”需要大量的时间,Pantelis等[40]认为,在比赛前可以采用与耐力运动比赛前“糖原负荷法”相似的“脂肪负荷法”,以提高运动员的持续表现能力。该策略包括赛前5~10天摄入高脂肪(60%~70%)和低蛋白质(15%~20%)以提高脂肪利用率[55]

  • 图1 专业运动员采用低碳高脂饮食结构对脂肪氧化率的改变[56]

  • 对“生酮适应”的超耐运动员研究发现,其脂肪氧化的峰值大大提高。在国外的实验中,学者们发现“生酮适应”的运动员在60%~80%的最大摄氧量运动时,其脂肪的氧化率比高碳水饮食习惯的运动员成倍增加,甚至达2至3倍[45-54]。为了证明“生酮适应”可以使脂肪氧化在总体能量消耗中占比更高,Volek等[55]对20名优秀的超耐马拉松运动员和铁人三项运动员进行了实验分析,发现在能量代谢过程中采用低碳水饮食结构的运动员脂肪氧化占比88%,而采用高碳水饮食结构的运动员脂肪氧化占比为56%。Zajac等[57]发现8名越野自行车运动员在长期生酮饮食条件下,乳酸阈值和最大摄氧量相对显著增加。Robins等[58]对1名赛艇运动员的案例研究显示,在2周的高脂饮食后,超耐力表现得到了提高。上述实验均证实“生酮适应”可以提高超耐运动员的运动表现能力,为获得好成绩奠定良好基础。

  • 5 结束语

  • 在长时间、长距离的生理及心理双重压力下,超耐运动过程中的负荷、能量代谢、底物代谢等有其显著特征。目前,众多学者在各个方面都进行了开拓性研究,但仍需要在如下几方面进行更深入和细致的探讨。①比赛类别的差异。超级耐力运动项目根据时间、距离或环境的不同,包含多种类型和形式的比赛,需要在更有效的类别划分基础上展开更有针对性的研究。②研究方法的差异。在超耐运动中实验室和比赛现场的结果有一定的差异,并且复合型比赛与单一型比赛的结果也存在差异,因此需要规范研究方法。③受试者的差异。在实验中会选取精英运动员、训练有素的运动员、训练有素的业余运动员和一般业余运动员,所呈现的指标会发生较为明显的不同,因此,在研究受试者方面需力求统一性和标准化。④负荷监控指标及预测比赛成绩指标在不断改进,Barrero等[13]发现在超级铁人三项赛中运动员心率极不稳定,受很多因素影响,因此,提出可以用摄氧量替代心率作为超耐阈值指标。⑤“生酮适应”也在不断验证,有营养学家提出,低碳高脂或生酮饮食结构会增加患多种疾病的风险,包括心脏病、癌症、糖尿病和阿尔茨海默病等。因此,超耐运动员的营养补给研究需要进一步证实和提出更好的方法。

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